The use of the Historical Cost convention and the accrual concept for Essay

The use of the Historical Cost convention and the accrual concept for stewardship and for decision making - Essay Example It is this purchase price which is referred to as the "historical" cost. An extension of this discussion will lead to interesting questions. The asset must be shown in the books at the purchase price. It is not to be shown at the market value. This is done to ensure a "true and fair" picture of the financial position of the firm. It is commonly noted that the asset which is purchased by the company will increase/decrease in value over time, because of market forces. In such a case, the correct representation of the asset will lie only in showing them at their original, historical cost. Showing the asset at its market value will portray the asset at a value which may be inflated or deflated, as the market forces may be. This will defeat the purpose of financial accounting, which involves giving a "true and fair" view of accounts. In such a case, as per the historical cost principle, the value of this land will be $50,000 in the books. Showing it at the inflated price of $80,000 will be against the accounting principle of prudence2, and it will inflate the profits of the firm, which may influence prospective outsiders. We know that Assets less Liabilities equals equity. So, greater the assets, greater the equity. However, since investors, creditors and other outsiders need to know the accurate information, which can be provided only with an accurate stewardship, there has to be a method that makes the selection of asset-value uniform. And that method is the historical cost principle. Not only does the historical cost convention make the value of assets uniform and unambiguous - as the cost of acquisition is shown as the asset value - it makes the whole process of number crunching an easier one. Evaluating the assets at their market value allows a lot of ambiguity to creep in. Since market value is always subject to volatility, the value of assets would always be subjective. The historical cost principle, in such a situation, evaluates the assets at the cost of their acquisition, making the value objective and uniform3. In such a case, the historical cost convention is particularly useful for stewardship. As discussed earlier, the historical cost convention requires the asset to be valued at its acquisition cost only. This means that only the money which we have actually spent is to be shown in the books. An inflated value of the assets goes against the principle of prudence. Stewardship, which plays the important role of communication of information to outsiders, involves presenting the financial position of the firm as accurately as possible, and of course, keeping in mind all norms. The historical cost convention enables this function to be done with vital ease. Upon employing the historical cost principle, the books of accounts present an impartial view of the financial position of the business concern. This naturally, helps prospective outsiders make a fully informed decision,

Wiccan traditional covens Essay Example for Free

Wiccan traditional covens Essay Wiccan traditional covens are formed thru male-female pairs thus making an obstacle for single members. The traditional practice do not however make any moral judgments about homosexuality according to Sanders (1987). The traditional covens criticize male-male or female-female pairings that is often seen as dangerous, in producing a mutually productive balance and is viewed as outside the mainstream Wicca. The understandable criticisms of traditional wiccans on the radicalism attached to gay members practicing wicca spins around the roles of a traditional heterosexual family as related by Curottt (2005). Traditional craft says that there is impossibility in working magic for two men in a gay relationship according to Salomonsen(2002). Though homosexuals cannot be barred from wicca, traditional values bar them from high ranks on the basis of sexual orientation. This contrast is an apparent reason for members to shy away from the pressures brought about by their own original group and join others or start a solitary practice. Like other religious denominations, the wiccan practice has formed dissenting opinions from other members and groups. This is highly conceivable considering the group’s lack of a centralized organization that commands a theological doctrine as a guideline for every practitioner. Like other religions, those who do not conform to the standard form their own sub-groups in order to liberalize them from the restrictions created by their own organization. Naturally, the mainstream aspect of the practice is retained as evidenced by the unified stance of Mary Anne, Sheila, Cris and Carol who vehemently denied any incorporation of evil practices and witchcraft into the wiccan religion. I firmly believe that the Wiccan practice as a religion depends upon a person’s moral and religious convictions. Most practitioners are happy with their practice because they are afforded the freedom to entertain their beliefs. The mere intolerance for hatred which is liberally taught and positively interpreted in wicca as the acceptance of other individuals is an ethical basis that any religion should uphold. Most likely, the lack of a centralized organization mandating doctrines of practice enables a group or an individual to freely incorporate or deviate from their belief and rituals without the pain of ridicule. Further, the lack of a centralized body reaping the benefits acquired from religious practice prevents conflicts from escalating which often results in a major religious disintegration. Wicca, as a religious practice teaches acceptance, love for nature and life. We can always distinguish that other religious denominations despite a strong stance against wicca have incorporated the age-old neo-pagan practices of the wiccan culture in their own beliefs. We do not have to enumerate the similarities which certainly show that the wiccan practice has long evolved even before man learned to integrate religion and culture into their social lives. Works Cited Rountree, Kathryn. Embracing the witch and the goddess: Feminist Ritual-Makers in New Zealand. London: Routledge, 2004. http://kindredspirit.co.uk/

Analyzing Spartacus Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Essay -- Post-trau

The character I have chosen to analyze having post traumatic stress disorder is Spartacus, who is played by Andy Whitfield on the hit series Spartacus Blood and Sand on Starz. Spartacus Blood and Sand is directed by Grady Hall and Rick Jacobson. Spartacus is a Thracian solider who was punished for his betrayal against the Roman Commander Legatus Claudius Glaber, played by Craig Parker. Spartacus was to be executed in the gladiatorial games and his wife Sura, played by Erin Cummings, was to be sold as a slave. However, Spartacus successfully defended his life by killing four-top notched gladiators in the arena. After his victory he was bought by Baticitus, played by John Hannah. Spartacus was to be a slave trained to be a gladiator in Baticitus’ ludus. When Spartacus began bringing great fortune from his winnings and social advancement to Baticitus’ ludus, he was promised to be reunited with his wife, Sura. After Spartacus became champion of Capua and being undef eated, he came to the realization that Baticitus was not going to keep his promise of reuniting him with his wife because too many victories had passed. Spartacus later found out in a recurrent flashback and current images that Baticitus had Spartacus’ wife Sura, killed. An analysis of Spartacus’ behavior of nightmares, insomnia, and haunting memories reveals that Spartacus has post traumatic stress disorder. The first behavior which proves Spartacus has post traumatic stress disorder is the nightmare of not being reunited with his wife. Most of his nightmares were of his wife being by his side during these trials and she would give him advice on how to survive and them being reunited again. His nightmares seemed to be prophesy or warnings of what would happen ... ... have a person feeling so overwhelmed, burnout, and overworked that they will â€Æ' PSTD treatments range from intricate psychobiologic features make therapy difficult. The three arms of treatment are patient education, pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy (Cabaltica, 2000). Pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy have been shown to alleviate the three clusters of PTSD symptoms: reexperiencing, avoidance and hypervigilance (Cabaltica, 2000). Works Cited Cabaltica, R, Lange C, Lange J. AAFP.org. American Academy of Family Physicians. September 1, 2000. Mayo Clinic Staff. Mayo Clinic.com. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. April 10, 2009. Myers David. Exploring Psychology 7th Edition. Worth, 2008. Print

Examples of Discipleship Essay

I believe that Dietrich Bonhoeffer and Christian Aid are two prime examples of discipleship in this century, Bonhoeffer as an individual and Christian Aid as an organisation. Bonhoeffer was a German preacher born in 1906 to a medical professor and his wife in Breslau, a small town. From an early age he wanted to serve God, and so he studied theology at university and taught and preached in both Germany and America. He returned to his homeland in 1933 to protest against the newly elected Nazi party, and joined the new Confessing Church, having rejected his previous Protestant church for bowing to Hitler’s demands. He worked in a secret training centre for new pastors, run by the confessing church, for four years, as the Gestapo closed it down in 1937. After that, and with the signs of the oppression soon to be felt by the German people becoming clearer, Bonhoeffer took a more active role in his campaigning against the Nazis, eventually leading him to a cell in a prison and the hangman’s noose in 1945. One of the main tenants of Christian discipleship is Jesus’ teaching on the mountain: pacifism and love for enemies. Bonhoeffer was an avid believer in these ideals, and wrote his still-relevant book, The Cost of Discipleship, based around those thoughts. He interpreted the maxim of â€Å"If someone strikes you on one cheek, turn to him the other also† as a call for pacifism and working out disagreements by reasoning rather than force. But Bonhoeffer was forced to challenge his own morals when the news of the violent anti-Semitism ignited by Hitler spread and several of his friends joined the German resistance. Most of those opposed to the Nazis saw that the only way to end the suffering caused by Hitler was to kill him. Public meetings were banned, and the press were heavily censored. The huge propaganda departments of the government would not allow any attempt by Bonhoeffer to spread his Christian teaching. So Bonhoeffer felt that he could be quiet, and wait until the war finished, and congratulate those that ended it, or he could play an active role in a plot to kill Hitler. Firstly he helped smuggle Jews out of Germany, but was caught and forced to give up any legitimate teaching. Forsaking any hope of reaching a peaceful end to the conflict, Bonhoeffer helped the bomb plot to assassinate Hitler. When it failed he was incarcerated, and he contemplated his deviance from Christian law. Bonhoffer had to make, on his own, one of the main questions that hangs over all belief systems: Whether the moment dictates what a person should do, or if people should always keep constant what they believe in. In his case it was between fighting evil and helping those in need or staying true to his pacifist roots. He chose to take a drastic step against some of Christ’s teachings to implement others, leading to his arrest and execution. This inevitable question still hangs over the church, and a viable answer has yet to be suggested. Christian Aid is a charity funded by numerous churches in the UK and Ireland. Although it is funded and staffed by Christians, Christian Aid will support any people in need, regardless of religion or race, and does not attempt to convert those it helps to Christianity. Although it combats poverty and need immediately and continually in global trouble areas, it also tries too stop poverty at it’s root, and was a large part of the ‘Jubilee 2000†² campaign to abolish third world debt. Christian aid has interpreted Jesus’ teaching on Discipleship and concentrated on the aid and help parts of his teaching. It would look to examples from his life: â€Å"When the sun was setting, the people brought to Jesus all who had various kinds of sickness, and laying hands on each one, he healed them† (Luke 4:40) This sort of passage, frequent in the gospels, shows that Jesus cared greatly for the needy, rejecting the idea that they somehow ‘deserved’ their punishment, and was not afraid to get dirty and ritually ‘unclean’ to help. In the same way, Christian Aid was set up by Christians who do not judge those they help, and will go to any lengths to re-enact Christ’s good work. They also follow the teaching laid down by Jesus in his parables, such as the parable of the Good Samaritan: â€Å"He went to him and bandaged his wounds, pouring on oil and wine. Then he put the man on his own Donkey, brought him to an Inn and took care of him.† (Luke 10:34) The idea of this parable, where one man steps in where others fear to tread, inspires Christian Aid a lot, as they are physically helping the needy of the world while other members of society just stand back and watch, sometimes nodding approvingly. They see this following of Jesus as being true to one of Jesus’ main teachings, â€Å"Love your neighbour as yourself† And seek to harmonise the lot of people around the world by abolishing suffering through war, poverty and disasters. As Christian Aids motto goes; â€Å"We believe in life before Death†, Christian Aid is rejecting the traditional view of the churches preaching yet not acting, and are playing an active role in the reduction of suffering. They see Jesus’ message not just as an instruction to put up with life until you die, but also as a chance to help the needy, and prove before God their faith as Christians.

How modern society changed women’s lives Essay

The position of women is often considered to have improved during the last few decades. There is, however, considerable debate as to the extent of change and the reasons for it. This essay will look at how women’s lives have changed in terms of employment, pay, education, household, sexuality and the state. I will conclude that the most important changes for women are in education, but that the basic pattern of inequality remains in most aspects of the social structure, from paid work to the household divisions of labour, from sexuality to violence. Ann Oakley (1981) has traced the changing status of women in British society from the eve of the Industrial Revolution to the 1970s. She claims that ‘the most important and enduring consequence of industrialization for women has been the emergence of the modern role of housewife as ‘the dominant mature feminine role’ Thus a combination of factors which included ideology, the banning of child labour, and restrictions of the employment of women, locked the majority of married women into the mother housewife role. This led to the idea of a ‘cornflake packet family’ where the male was the breadwinner, the wife was the housewife, and the family consisted of two children – a boy and a girl. The mother had an expressive role, while the father had an instrumental role of going out to work. The inequality, and the extent to which the different aspects of this are interconnected, mean that is some use the concept of patriarchy to describe this set of social relations. Patriarchy is a social system through which men dominate, exploit and oppress women. However, in recent decades, changes in the economy and society have altered the situation – several of these changes will be outlined below. One of the most important areas to look at for the changes in women’s lives is in terms of pay and employment relative to men. Women are less likely than men to be in paid employment, but the gap has closed steadily over recent decades. The proportion of those in employment who are women rose from 38.1% in 1971 to 49.6% in 1995. However, most of the increase in women’s employment has been in part time work. The proportion of women working part time has increased steadily, from 34% in 1971 to 47% in 1995. Women workers are concentrated within a very narrow range of occupational groups, although there have been some significant changes in this recently. Over 40% of full time women workers are to be found in clerical employment. In contrast, men are spread through a much wider range of occupations. Women are confined both to lower grade jobs (vertical segregations) and to different jobs (horizontal segregation). The pattern of segregation however has changed significantly over recent years. At the top end of the hierarchy the number and proportion of women in the managerial and professional grades have substantially increased. However, in the most powerful positions in public life, women continue to be seriously under-represented. Walby notes that in 1992 only 9.2 per cent of MPs were women, there were no women Chief Constables until the 1990s, and in 1994 only one in 25 High Court judges was a woman. In 1996, there was only one woman among 50 British ambassadors or heads of overseas mi ssions. Linda McDowell uses the theory of post-Fordism to understand changes in the labour market. This theory argues that businesses have moved away from mass production towards the flexible production of small batches of specialized products. In doing so, they employ a core of highly skilled workers who are capable of using their skills to produce a wide variety of products. Other work is carried out by part-time workers, or workers on short-term contracts, or is contracted out to other firms. McDowell argues that these changes are reflected in the increased use of part-time female labour and the reduction in the employment of males in full-time permanent jobs. But while it is clearly important to take account of changes in the labour market and the economy as a whole in order to understand the changing patterns of gender inequality, it is necessary to be cautious about basing an analysis on the theory of post foridsm. This theory has been heavily criticized on a number of grounds, and the work of Lovering and others suggests that post Fordism cannot be seen as a general trend that has affected all employers. A different explanation for the changing nature and pattern of women’s employment in countries such as Scandinavia has been the shift to state  policy. Talcott Parsons had proposed a functionalist explanation of women’s disadvantaged position in the labour market, which focused on the impact of the household. He argued that men get paid more because women’s domestic responsibilities adversely affect their involvement in paid work. However, in Scandinavia, there is a much greater public provision of childcare together with higher rates of female employment and a smaller wages gap between women and men. Thus changes to state policy can improve the nature and pattern of women’s employment. But has there been any change in women’s pay relative to men’s? The implementation of the Equal Pay Act between 1970 and 1975 reduced the wages gap a little. In 1970 women earned only 63% on men’s hourly rates, and only 55% of men’s gross weekly pay. In 1997, women working full time earned 81% of men’s hourly rate, but those women working part time only earned 59% of men’s hourly rates. Thus the size of the gap has been closing steadily for those working full time, but not for those working part time. It does seem therefore that the position of women in employment has transformed itself in recent years, though there remains considerable inequality and the picture is not one of simple progress. One area where there have been considerable changes for women’s lives has been in education. Education has seen a transformation of the position of girls and young women. In schools, not only has the traditional gender gap in examination performance been closed but girls have overtaken boys; while in higher education the gender gap is closing steadily. One reason for the change is the discrimination against women in education was made illegal in the 1875 Sex Discrimination Act. A further reason was the increase in the opportunities for women in the world after education as the labour market gradually opened up. These changes in education have potential implications for other aspects of gender relations – since access to good jobs as some relationship to educational qualifications, women might anticipate taking a higher proportion of top jobs. It may also have an impact on wages, in so far as lack of qualifications, rather than discrimination, was a reason for women†™s poor rates of pay. However, while girls are learning in new areas,  boys are not learning those subjects traditionally learned by women eg at present, only 15% of all boys do home economics. A further important issue to look at when considering the changing lives of women, is in the area of the household. The most striking change is the increased likelihood of families being formed of only mothers and children, which reflects to a large degree the large increase in divorce rates. The number of lone parents increased from 8% in 1981 to 21% in 1996, and the vast majority of these are women. One of the most significant features of one-parent families is their tendency to live in poverty, leading to many forms of social exclusion. The poverty largely results from the lack of a male income into the household, but is compounded by the lower propensity of lone mothers to be in employment as compared with married mothers. Changes in the welfare state are also important in that they have disproportionately affected women because more of them head single parent households and more live to pensionable age. Women in old age are thus particularly vulnerable to the risk of poverty. A further change in the household has been in attitudes towards housework. Men are now more likely to accept that women should not be responsible for all the housework. However, it does seem that while there has been a change in attitudes, this is not to a great degree played out in action. The UK is in contrast to some countries such as Sweden where there is more shared parenting and childcare is part of education for boys and girls. Changes in sexuality have been a further impact upon women’s lives. Giddens argued that there has been a ‘transformation of intimacy’ in recent years. It is widely suggested that women have made great advance towards equality with men in the area of sexuality. The sexual double standard, whereby non-marital sex was acceptable for men and not for women has reduced. Other changes include the much greater availability of contraception and safe abortion, which has made unwanted children much less likely. Furthermore, there has been greater acceptance of a wider range of sexual practices, such as gay and lesbian relationships. Feminist movements have also helped to change and shape women’s lives. The  1970s was the second wave of feminism in the twentieth century, the early one being instrumental in winning political citizenship for women. Many of the feminist ideas of the 1970s which had been considered outrageously radical when first expressed are now widely accepted. For instance, male violence is now recognized as a significant problem and the subject of serious discussion by the police as well as feminists. Equal pay is also an early feminist demand now accepted into mainstream policy initiatives such as Opportunity 2000. In Gender Transformations(1997), Walby reviews changes in patriarchy in the 1990s. Although she discovers plenty of evidence that patriarchal structures remain in place in Britain, she also finds evidence of important changes. In particular, she claims that there is evidence of a generational difference between older and younger women. Older women tend to be restricted by the constrains of private patriarchy, which was the dominant form of patriarchy in their early lives. They are likely to have few qualifications and therefore have limited opportunities in the labour market. Younger women, on the other hand, have benefited from some of the changes that have taken place. They are likely to benefit from increased qualifications and improved labour market opportunities. Walby thus points to polarization between the younger and older women, while convergence between younger women and men. In conclusion, there have been many changes in the transition to modernity, which have shaped women’s lives. While some of these changes have reduced gender inequality n recent years, especially in the field of education, the basic pattern of inequality remains in most aspects of the social structure, from paid work to the household divisions of labour, from sexuality to violence. This essay has pointed to many changes in women’s lives, but whether their lives have improved has been a matter of debate: Liberal feminists tend to see these changes as progress, while radical feminists tend to argue that little has changed and patriarchal domination remains firmly intact. Marxists usually claim that industrialization and the advent of capitalism led to a deterioration in the position of women and since the Industrial Revolution little has improved. Bibliography Mcdowell L ‘Father and Ford revisited: gender, class and employment change in the new millennium’ Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 2001 Walby Gender Transformations Abercrombie, Warde et al, ‘Contemporary British Society’ Haralambos and Holborn ‘Sociology’

The witch craze of the 1600s essays

The witch craze of the 1600's essays Are there such things as a witch? If the answer is yes, then what do they look like? Where do they live? In what way are they different from the modern day illusionist or magician? If the answer is no, then explain why nearly the entire population of Europe was convinced that witches existed for more then a century so much so, in fact, that a section of their written laws was devoted to the steps for discovery and prosecution of witches If you were to ask the average individual in North America what they new about witches, they would probably mention something about the Salem witch trials that took place in Massachusetts during colonial America. The fact of the matter is that the twenty witch burnings that took place in Salem in 1692 pale in comparison to the witch craze that engulfed Western Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries . If the entire population of a continent believed in witches, then it is unquestionable they do exist, or at least did exist, right ? One logical way to accurately answer these questions is to examine books pertaining to the controversial subject of witches. The two books chosen for this investigation provide both a macro and a micro perspective on the European witch craze. Joseph Klaits Servants of Satan: The Age of Witch Hunts gives a general overview of the witch hunt craze of the sixteenth and seventeenth century. The more detailed book A Case of Witchcraft: The Trial of Urbain Grandier by Robert Rapley, on the other hand, describes a specific series of events, which occur during the same time period. By comparing these two books, an understanding of the political, religious, and social attitudes of that era can be obtained. Thus, once this understanding is outlined then perhaps these witch related questions can be answered. In order to understand these books more clearly, the scene must be set for the impending investigation. Although the witch craze was a phenomeno...

Free Essays on The American Diner

Andrew Hurley’s classic essay â€Å"From Hash House to Family Restaurant: The Transformation of the Diner and Post-World War II Consumer Culture† describes the rise of the American diner and its coinciding idea of American Society. Hurley attempts to show similarities between American culture at the time and the change of how people view public dining. With the end of World War II a new consumer based society emerged. This created a large middle class with emphasis on the nuclear family. Due to these changes in the household many people began to look at things differently. The American diner then and now is a perfect example of these changes. The diner we know today contains qualities that are very attractive to people of all walks of life. Fast friendly service, decent food, cheap prices, and its clean cut appearance can interest anyone with an empty stomach. However this diner as we know it did not come easily. As with many things it has evolved over time adhering to what the public wants and what can sell. In the essay Hurley describes the beginning of diners to come from an evolution of lunch trucks outside dense commercial and industrial work sites. Visited daily by mostly male factory workers it was an informal place to get a quick bite to eat and converse with fellow workers. With the end of the war came many jobs and prosperity for many people. Our society was now one based on buying instead of saving. People became more efficient and less afraid of the outside world. The growing country and its workers needed places like these lunch trucks in order to go about there everyday lives. Here is when entrepreneurs saw an opportunity to make some money. By centralizing these trucks and extending their cooking facilities owners were now able to accommodate many more patrons. As the years went by these lunch trucks expanded into buildings with the same idea. The crowds they attracted were made up of all blue collar men. Due to this... Free Essays on The American Diner Free Essays on The American Diner Andrew Hurley’s classic essay â€Å"From Hash House to Family Restaurant: The Transformation of the Diner and Post-World War II Consumer Culture† describes the rise of the American diner and its coinciding idea of American Society. Hurley attempts to show similarities between American culture at the time and the change of how people view public dining. With the end of World War II a new consumer based society emerged. This created a large middle class with emphasis on the nuclear family. Due to these changes in the household many people began to look at things differently. The American diner then and now is a perfect example of these changes. The diner we know today contains qualities that are very attractive to people of all walks of life. Fast friendly service, decent food, cheap prices, and its clean cut appearance can interest anyone with an empty stomach. However this diner as we know it did not come easily. As with many things it has evolved over time adhering to what the public wants and what can sell. In the essay Hurley describes the beginning of diners to come from an evolution of lunch trucks outside dense commercial and industrial work sites. Visited daily by mostly male factory workers it was an informal place to get a quick bite to eat and converse with fellow workers. With the end of the war came many jobs and prosperity for many people. Our society was now one based on buying instead of saving. People became more efficient and less afraid of the outside world. The growing country and its workers needed places like these lunch trucks in order to go about there everyday lives. Here is when entrepreneurs saw an opportunity to make some money. By centralizing these trucks and extending their cooking facilities owners were now able to accommodate many more patrons. As the years went by these lunch trucks expanded into buildings with the same idea. The crowds they attracted were made up of all blue collar men. Due to this...

The Yellow Wallpaper Questions for Study and Discussion

The Yellow Wallpaper Questions for Study and Discussion The Yellow Wallpaper Questions for Study and Discussion: The Yellow Wallpaper is the most famous work by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. She also wrote about why she created this short work in Why I Wrote The Yellow Wallpaper .Students often are asked to read this story in  Literature classesthe description is compelling, and the storyline is unforgettable. Here are a few questions for study and discussion related to this famous work. What is important about the title, The Yellow Wallpaper?Could the wallpaper have been any other color? How would a change in color have changed the story? How does the color yellow affect you? Do you like (or dislike) it? What are the psychological implications of the color yellow? How would a different color change the story?How does the narrators description of the wallpaper change over time? How is the wallpaper representative of the domestic sphere?Could the story have taken place in a different place (or at a different time)? Why does the narrator live in a colonial mansion? What does the setting mean? Is it important?Why does Charlotte Perkins Gilman change the point of view? Is it an effective technique?Why does the narrator say: what can one do How does that statement represent her state of mind?Why do you think Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote The Yellow Wallpaper? Historically, the story was based on personal experience (autobiographical)how effectively does Gilman employ the events of her life to create this work of literature? What are the conflicts in The Yellow Wallpaper? What types of conflict (physical, moral, intellectual, or emotional) did you notice? Is the conflict resolved?How does Charlotte Perkins Gilman reveal character in The Yellow Wallpaper?Do you care about the characters? Do you like (or dislike) them? How real (or well-developed) do they seem to you?What are some themes in The Yellow Wallpaper? Symbols? How do they relate to the plot and characters?Does The Yellow Wallpaper end the way you expected? Did you expect a longer (or more involved narrative)? How? Why?What is the central/primary purpose of The Yellow Wallpaper? Is the purpose important or meaningful?What is the role of women in the text? How are mothers represented? What about single/independent women? What is important about womenin the historical context?How does the narrators relationship with her husband evolve/change? Does her mental state improve or worsen?Compare the main character in The Yellow Wallpaper with the mad wom an in the attic (from Jane Eyre). What does love have to do with it? What about mental illness? Compare the narrator in The Yellow Wallpaper with Edna in The Awakening. Is the narrator suicidal?Compare the narrator in The Yellow Wallpaper with Susan from Doris Lessings To Room 19. Is the narrator suicidal?Compare the narrator in The Yellow Wallpaper with the narrator from Virginia Woolfs Mrs Dalloway. Why is the party so important?Would you recommend The Yellow Wallpaper to a friend? Why? Why not?What did you enjoy (or hate) most about The Yellow Wallpaper? Why?Why is The Yellow Wallpaper sometimes considered essential reading in Feminist Literature? What are the qualities that make it representative?How does The Yellow Wallpaper fit in with the other known works of literature by Charlotte Perkins Gilman? Study Guide The Yellow Wallpaper QuotesWhy I Wrote The Yellow WallpaperCharlotte Perkins Gilman Biography

Fast Food Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fast Food - Essay Example not just limited to any particular region or country and town, rather all over the world fast food is quite common and strongly followed and like all over the world. However being the most ubiquitous form of food that is available in every nook and corner, it has resulted in plenty of criticism from the experts over ages and has been tested for many cases of improper diet. American teen agers are perhaps the most frequent ones and most fond of fast food. For this reason this generation is called the fast food generation (Schlosser). They are fonder of this food than the conventional form, be it their schools, their evening outings, all around they would prefer fast foods. The modern generation and modern times are termed as fast food generation and fast food era respectively. Since every individual is enrolled and associated with the consumption of fast food in one way or the other, therefore they have become an integral part of modern day civilizations. They have a direct negative impact on the pregnant women as well. A multi billion industry that cannot be packed up by any means, and statistics showing the business being expanded by very high proportion around the world. In the United States, one out of three adults is a regular eater of fast food and as a result are not able to stop their children from eating the junk food. Other survey conducted in this regard resulted in showing that some of them ate the food in company of their children; as a result the children are in direct line of attack as well whenever their parents visit the fast food chains. Study conducted over number of school students and their usage of fast food showed considerable percentage of increase in obesity due to the amount of fast food intake, and the amount of weight gained is staggeringly alarming(Currie, Moretti, et.al). While fast foods may not be all unhealthy food items, the problem associated is that of extremely high energy food intake in form of fast food and further on,

Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Strategic Management - Essay Example The result was the evolution of the company as the largest low cost international carriers. The company has shown rapid and consistent growth from the time it was launched. The project aims to put forth the strategic interest in expanding operations in the Chinese market. In this regard, it analyses the overall strategic environment in which the company operates. This has been elaborately presented with the help of PESTEL analysis and Porter’s Five Forces Model. Based on the analysis, the strategy has been designed for the company. This has been done using the Ansoff Matrix and the Nine Strategic Windows. Finally, the overall evaluation of the strategy has been given as per the company’s objectives. Company Mission and Vision The company does not present or publish a formal mission or vision statement. However, as per, Michael O’Leary’s public statements the company aims to simply continue being â€Å"the largest Low Cost Leader in the European airline in dustry† (Box & Byus, 2005, p.3). ... The state has also been effective in making the transition. In fact, it has economic links with many of the cities in the United Kingdom and has the involvement of the relevant Chambers of Commerce in this regard. The overall political condition is one that promotes entry of industries into the market. The sectoral delegations are administered and organized by the â€Å"Department of Trade and Industry† (Chinese Marketing and Communications, n.d.). The China Council is considered to be the most important â€Å"clearing house for trade and investment opportunities in China† (Chinese Marketing and Communications, n.d.). It provides information comprehensively for the promotion of trade and investment activities. Economic China’s economic condition also looks favorable for the airlines industry. This is because the economy has undergone restructuring which has resulted in efficiency gains and this has added to the GDP growth substantially. The economy has remained i n the path of a rapid growth trajectory since the beginning of 2011. As per the 12th Five year plan, China emphasizes on the growth of its domestic consumption and makes the economy less dependent on exports. The country especially promotes foreign investment in strategic emerging sectors (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011). The company would have to cope with the fuel expanses which have been growing across all corners of the world. The company has already undergone major losses as well as offset of its revenue growth arising from high cost of fuel. The fuel rising expenses of fuel Ryanair since 2005 has been shown in the following figure. Figure 1: Ryanair fuel expenses as a portion of total operating expenses: 1Q05 to 2Q09 (Source: Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation,

Interpretation of Accounts Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Interpretation of Accounts - Assignment Example It is here that the various financial ratios come handy in describing the status of the company. The company’s performance can be judged from several accounting and profitability ratios such as liquidity measurement ratios, profitability ratios, debt ratios. The ratios give information about the company’s health and help in decision making to investors, creditors, job seekers and other stakeholders. The company’s current status can also be judged by comparing them with previous years’ financial data or ratios to arrive at the conclusion how the company is faring. Advantages and Limitations of the Financial Ratios On advantage side, it helps read and simply the financial statements. The companies in the same group can be compared with each other. It also helps to understand the trend when compared with the previous years’ financial data. By going through a few numbers, one can quickly assess about the status of the company. On limitations side, it ca nnot explain the difference between two companies from two different industries or groups. It cannot provide correct information when two different accounting standards are followed, for example, USGAAP and UK accounting standards (Accounting Explained, 2012). Having realized the importance of various financial ratios, it would be now most appropriate to do some ratio analysis for Pompomi. Financial Performance of Pompomi Financial Performance of Pompomi can be judged from several accounting and profitability ratios (Financial Ratios, 2012). Current assets as at 31/09/09 ?195,700 Current liabilities as at 31/09/09 ?43,500 Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities = 195,700/ 43,500 = 4.50 Acid-test Ratio Acid-test ratio, also known as the quick ratio, takes into account the most liquid current assets that are available to cover current liabilities. It excludes the raw material stock, finished goods inventory or other current assets that cannot be quickly converted to cash. Acid-test ratio = (Accounts receivable + Cash and Equivalents) / Current Liabilities Given, Current liabilities as at 31/09/09 ?43,500 Cash at bank ?20,000 Cash in Hand ?26,500 Accounts Receivable ?100,000 Thus, Acid-test ratio = (100,000 + 26,500+20,000) / 43,500 = 3.37 It is true that higher the quick ratio, the better it is for the company as it is an indication of liquidity to cover the current liabilities. Acid-test ratio is a conservative measurement of company's current liquidity. If the current ratio and acid-test ratio are very close then it is an indication that the company's current assets are not dependent on inventory. However, if the accounts receivables take considerable time to recover (several months instead of several days) then acid-test ratio can certainly mislead the people regarding its quickness to provide liquidity. In this perspective, it becomes essential to know about the average time taken by debtors to pay the money they owe to the company for their fin ished goods purchases. Debt to Equity Ratio of Pompomi The debt-equity ratio is a comparison of total debt to total equity of a company. The ratio also gives information about the company's leverage position that in turn, is an indication of the risk profile of the company. Higher debt-equity ratio can be risky during recessionary phase of the business because huge interest outgo may suppress the profit of the company significantly. Even it may cause liquidity issues impacting working of the company. This does not mean that zero debt company is always good. When the company is in growth phase, its fund requirement is huge and that is usually met through raising debts to a reasonable extent. Debt-equity ratio between the industry groups varies widely; it essentially depends upon the nature of business and the growth

Discussion 1.1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion 1.1 - Essay Example She is going to have a clear and powerful plan on the management of water and its distribution. She is also a participant in the community meaning that she is a well cooperative person. Health and care is another key to be considered in the city because we need Maxine Gourley who is to be a director in matters of nursing and she is also has a family. She also understands services of the children and she is a pure Christian. She also cares about her environment because she was a top member of an environmental. Law and order is another important aspect to be considered in the country. Glen Edwards is a police chief who has experience and understands the city very well. He understands the city because of the 16 year living and experiencing the life of hustle. He is also a family man hence he understands the family problems that face the city people. He is against The city needs to have a clear communication and social environment that is very friendly. This needs someone educated and understands the communication very well. Eric is able to block leaders who are wanted and create a good communicating platform in the

Compare SPAIN and AUSTRIA on their GDP per capita over the last three Essay

Compare SPAIN and AUSTRIA on their GDP per capita over the last three years - Essay Example Spain and Austria indicate a greatly positive linear pattern. The variation surrounding the pattern values are distinguished by a quasi normal distribution with possibly levy distribution for far conclusion. Advancing nations make evident the percentage increase of values far below the average percentage increase for significant advanced economies. This signifies a deficit despite the huge relative development rates. Authentic economic development has been analyzed statistically from the time when Kuznet’s efforts on accounting of national income and collective element inputs were applied. Hodrick and Prescott (1980) brought in a concept of 2 components, initiating a model of 2 component economic development an economic pattern and a variation of business cycle factors. The pattern component is accountable for the long lasting development and describes economic effectiveness. In the end run, the variation component of economic development has to possess a 0 average value. In t he year 2010, shakes of the Global economic crisis let down the Spanish asset bubble leading to an asset collapse. Development trembled and unemployment started to increase. The asset let down brought about a disintegration of credit as banks crashed into huge decreased lending, leading to a depression. As the economy went down, the government revenue crumbled and government debt started to increase fast. By the year 2011 the nation encountered economic problems and was drawn in the European sovereign debt predicament. In the year 2012, the rate of unemployment began to rise again to a record height of 25% (Kitov, 2012). On 25th May 2012, Bankia during this period the 4th leading bank of Spain with 12 million clients, asked for an assistance of â‚ ¬19 billion, the huge bank assistance in the country’s history. The new running by Jose Ignacio Goirigolzarri established losses subsequent to taxes of â‚ ¬4.3 billion (2.98 billion taking into consideration an economic credit ) in comparison to a profit of â‚ ¬328 Million established at what time when Rodrigo Rato was at the top of Bankia till May 9, 2012 (Kitov, 2012). The Austrian Economy has eroded the disaster well at the rear of an export leading recovery. Austria like other nations relying on export economies were hit hard by the crisis however the present recovery efforts present a leading chance to empower change efforts particularly in the following spheres. First, subsidized paths in early retirement need to be removed, secondly work incentives of less skilled employees need to be empowered and their expense of employment decreased. Thirdly, early child care facilities and full day learning should be developed. Fourthly, education restructuring need to advance and finally competition should be advanced in network service industry in addition to liberal fields. These restructuring directions are fundamental for the prospective development performance. This is for the reason that positive exte rior shakes at the back of European incorporation will, in large extent, not advance with similar intensity as in the last 3 years and drivers of development will rely largely on domestic resources. Economic vulnerabilities, while low in global assessment, have advanced. Public economy became worse marked by the crises, led by flexible

Evaluate Auditing Processes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evaluate Auditing Processes - Essay Example The essay will also evaluate the various accounting processes that are being adopted by the federal government in a succinct manner. It is evident that there lay certain specific criteria, which need to be adhered while complying with a standard auditing process. This aspect is also evident in the case of auditing a town or a city. The audit, which has been conducted for the Town of Maywood can be evaluated based on the requirements of GAAS. Theoretically, GAAS is a particular framework, which provides a set of guidelines to be followed by auditors for ensuring accuracy, reliability as well as fairness in the auditing process. The audit conducted for the Town of Maywood was executed with proper observations of the activities performed by the people who were involved with the preparation of its financial statements. It can be affirmed that this particular auditing procedure adhered to the guidelines of GAAS (Kinney Jr, 1986). Notably, the audit report also presented the reason for not considering the financial reports of other towns with which Maywood is associated. This particular aspect also shows compliance of the audit report with the GAAS framework (Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, 2014). Through analyzing the audit report, it can be determined that the audit conducted for the Town of Maywood is in alignment with most of the requirements of the GAAS framework and very little has been omitted or not complied with the same. Prior to the preparation of an audit report, individuals interested both in public administration as well as working as accountants for governmental units must possess an in-depth knowledge about the objectives along with the standards to be followed while preparing an audit report. This may be owing to the reason that the effectiveness of public administration is directly relevant with appropriate

Compare SPAIN and AUSTRIA on their GDP per capita over the last three Essay

Compare SPAIN and AUSTRIA on their GDP per capita over the last three years - Essay Example Spain and Austria indicate a greatly positive linear pattern. The variation surrounding the pattern values are distinguished by a quasi normal distribution with possibly levy distribution for far conclusion. Advancing nations make evident the percentage increase of values far below the average percentage increase for significant advanced economies. This signifies a deficit despite the huge relative development rates. Authentic economic development has been analyzed statistically from the time when Kuznet’s efforts on accounting of national income and collective element inputs were applied. Hodrick and Prescott (1980) brought in a concept of 2 components, initiating a model of 2 component economic development an economic pattern and a variation of business cycle factors. The pattern component is accountable for the long lasting development and describes economic effectiveness. In the end run, the variation component of economic development has to possess a 0 average value. In t he year 2010, shakes of the Global economic crisis let down the Spanish asset bubble leading to an asset collapse. Development trembled and unemployment started to increase. The asset let down brought about a disintegration of credit as banks crashed into huge decreased lending, leading to a depression. As the economy went down, the government revenue crumbled and government debt started to increase fast. By the year 2011 the nation encountered economic problems and was drawn in the European sovereign debt predicament. In the year 2012, the rate of unemployment began to rise again to a record height of 25% (Kitov, 2012). On 25th May 2012, Bankia during this period the 4th leading bank of Spain with 12 million clients, asked for an assistance of â‚ ¬19 billion, the huge bank assistance in the country’s history. The new running by Jose Ignacio Goirigolzarri established losses subsequent to taxes of â‚ ¬4.3 billion (2.98 billion taking into consideration an economic credit ) in comparison to a profit of â‚ ¬328 Million established at what time when Rodrigo Rato was at the top of Bankia till May 9, 2012 (Kitov, 2012). The Austrian Economy has eroded the disaster well at the rear of an export leading recovery. Austria like other nations relying on export economies were hit hard by the crisis however the present recovery efforts present a leading chance to empower change efforts particularly in the following spheres. First, subsidized paths in early retirement need to be removed, secondly work incentives of less skilled employees need to be empowered and their expense of employment decreased. Thirdly, early child care facilities and full day learning should be developed. Fourthly, education restructuring need to advance and finally competition should be advanced in network service industry in addition to liberal fields. These restructuring directions are fundamental for the prospective development performance. This is for the reason that positive exte rior shakes at the back of European incorporation will, in large extent, not advance with similar intensity as in the last 3 years and drivers of development will rely largely on domestic resources. Economic vulnerabilities, while low in global assessment, have advanced. Public economy became worse marked by the crises, led by flexible

Implementation of strategy power politcal Annotated Bibliography

Implementation of strategy power politcal - Annotated Bibliography Example Middle managers are even known to form coalition groups if it increases their leverage. In such a situation it is imperative to recognize the importance of middle management support. We can use political tools such as equanimity and satisficing to encourage commitment. Reducing management resistance can be accomplished through inducement, persuasion, obligation and coercion. Upper management can realize that middle level managers may be right in their assumption that the organization cannot achieve the plan. Where confidence is lacking, upper management can provide the impetus through training and reward inducement. In cases of hard sell, coercion and appeal to obligation might be necessary. Not heeding the interests of middle management only works to the organization’s detriment. Middle management can sabotage, delay or reduce the quality of the implementation of a new project that does not serve their self interests. The author states that failure to implement MIS changes in an organization may be due to internal factors, poor system design or interaction of specific features of the new design with the present organizational system. It is therefore important to get top management support and user involvement in the design process, make technically sound systems that are user friendly as well, overcome resistance to change and show how the benefits of the new system would outweigh the costs. The author uses Kling’s six distinct theoretical perspectives of Rational, Structural, Inter-actionist, Organizational Politics, and Class Politics. While the first three have been classified under Systems Rationalism, the last three come under Segmented Institutionalism. As regards types of resistance, they can be classified into People Determined Factors and System Determined Factors. However, though a pragmatic application of Interaction theory, many of the causes can be addressed successfully. Inte racting with

My Ántonia, Individualism Essay Example for Free

My à ntonia, Individualism Essay (Individualism: Its Influence over Lena, Jim and à ntonia During Their Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood) â€Å"The longest journey is the journey inwards. Of him who has chosen his destiny, Who has started upon his quest for the source of his being† Dag Hammarskjold.1 This individualist journey, Hammarskjold refers to, consists of two very important elements which contribute to individualism: (1) having the awareness of personal accountability before the Lord and Savior and (2) having a self-sufficient nature as a fountainhead of a person’s individuality which was required to settle the American frontier. These key ingredients mixed with an untamed land tempered the settlers into what we know them today as Americans which may be observed within Willa Cather’s My Antonia as the reader follows the lives of three key characters: Lena, Jimmy, and Antonia. Cather herself searched for her own individualism which she juxtaposed in this 1918 literary work with the character Jimmy. Both he and the author of the story were born in Virginia and at an early age were sent to Nebraska to join their grandparents. And much like the author, he had the pleasure of growing up with a variety of immigrants and stories. Such narratives inspired the author throughout her writing career. My Antonia follows the endeavors of the female protagonist, Antonia, and her foil, Lena, as they struggle in a new country, language, and culture seeking happiness and fulfillment in their lives which Cather so often observed in her childhood immigrant neighbors. Likewise, the reader learns about Jimmy with his own personal struggles as he strives for autonomy in a rugged territory with strict moral codes. Willa Cather’s My à ntonia addresses the notion of individualism which is best seen through direct and indirect characterization of three dynamic characters: Lena, Jimmy, and à ntonia by means of analyzing three stages of life: childhood, youth, and adulthood. A remarkable example of individualistic growth is depicted in Lena Lingard who lived in the countryside with her newly transplanted Norwegian family outside Black Hawk, Nebraska. The reader first encounters Lena through direct characterization as she is described as being â€Å"bareheaded and barefooted, scantily dressed in tattered clothing† (106)2 when she was just a child looking after her family’s herd. In the first part of the book she is introduced as a wild, poorly dressed working girl in charge of farm tasks much like other foreign girls: â€Å"Lena lived in the Norwegian settlement west of Squaw Creek, and she used to herd her fathers cattle in the open country between his place and the Shimerdas† (106). Further along in the novel, there is a clear change in this character’s life. She grows-up and changes her worn out rags for dressmaker quality clothing with hat and gloves as she begins a new phase in her life as a dressmaker’s apprentice in the town of Black Hawk: â€Å"’So you have come to town,’ said Mrs. Harling, her eyes still fixed on Lena.  ´Where are you working?’  ´For Mrs. Thomas, the dressmaker. She is going to teach me to sew. She says I have quite a knack’† (104). As a young adult, Lena strikes-out on her own to the city of Lincoln in a supreme final exhibition of the independence she has forged for herself throughout her life through hard work and determination. â€Å"‘I live in Lincoln now, too, Jim. Im in business for myself. I have a dressmaking shop in the Raleigh Block, out on O Street. Ive made a real good start’ (170-171). The path Lena has walked since her childhood, through her adolescence, and then adulthood has illustrated a noticeable achievement in becoming a self-sufficient young woman who quested for her destiny in an untamed land far from her native home. Lena’s personal accountability should also be explored, being one of the key elements of individualism, as she never turned her back on her family but always sent them money from her sewing work: â€Å"’After I learn to do sewing, I can make money and help . . . [my mother]’† (104). These individualistic elements were key in developing her character as she was noted in taking care of herself as well as her parents and siblings which was required of those immigrants who founded America and became a new breed of people known as Americans. Individualism was also reached by two other primary characters within this classic American literature novel: Jimmy and Antonia. Jim Burden, the narrator of the story and also one of the major characters of Willa Cather ´s My Antonia, is as well and important example of how a human being can evolve trough his life to find completeness and self-sufficiency. At the beginning of the book, Jim had just suffered the loss of his parents; and sent to his grandparents. While he was in the train on his way to Nebraska he was in deep grieve and uncertain about his future. â€Å" ´ I dont think I was homesick. If we never arrived anywhere, it did not matter. Between that earth and that sky I felt erased, blotted out. I did not say my prayers that night: here, I felt, what would be would be ´Ã¢â‚¬ . Nevertheless, that sad passage in his life did not let Jim down. In the same train that he was travelling there was a Bohemian family. One of the members of that family was à ntonia Shimerda, who would become his best friend in the near future. When Jim had enough age to start studying at School, coincidentally his grandparents also had to move to Black Hawk due to Mrs. Burden health situation. There he met new friends, worked hard on his studies, and also had fun. Despite being sad and scared in the past, Jim managed to overcome these difficulties and successfully improve at school. So much so, that soon he would move to Lincoln to start his college career. There he met Gaston Cleric who joined him in his new adventure, and helped Jim to get over some obstacles that he had to face while living in Lincoln. â€Å"At the university I had the good fortune to come immediately under the influence of a brilliant and inspiring young scholar. Gaston Cleric had arrived in Lincoln only a few weeks earlier than I . . .† (165). Cleric also convinced him to move to Boston to finish his career, where Jim would finally reach his goal of becoming a professional. â€Å"Two years after I left Lincoln I completed my academic course at Harvard. Before I entered the Law School I went home for the summer vacation.† (191) Just after getting his college degree, Jim travelled back to Black Hawk where he would find everything different, his friends either dead or gone, the kids were not the same, and even the town itself was all changed. He left Black Hawk being an adolescent with dreams and now he had returned as a professional. He felt he was complete, despite of the fact that he still had very present that sorrowful night in which he was moving from Virginia to Nebraska. â€Å" ´I had only to close my eyes to hear the rumbling of the wagons in the dark, and to be again overcome by that obliterating strangeness. The feelings of that night were so near that I could reach out and touch them with my hand. I had the sense of coming home to myself, and of having found out what a little circle mans experience is ´. (238)† By the time he came back to Black Hawk he knew that he had seized the opportunities he had and felt that his life had been worthy living. While back in town, he went to visit his beloved friend à ntonia, which also was happy. The happenings in Antonia’s life, and how she evolved from being a little girl in a foreign country to the women she became will be thoroughly developed next. à ntonia Shimerda is the main character that we find in Willa Cather’s My à ntonia. As well as Lena and Jim she is characterized during different stages of her life (childhood, adolescence and adulthood). One example of this characterization is portrayed in how à ntonia was developing her new language (English) and how it was influenced by the different periods of time she went through, as well as the places she moved to. At the beginning of the story we find à ntonia and her family moving from Bohemia to the prairie of Nebraska. In the prairie and as a child she met Lena Lingard and Jim Burden who would become one of the most important persons in her life. Jim was going to be the one in charge of teaching English to à ntonia who did not speak much English before the arrival to the prairie; â€Å" ´Ãƒ ntonia had opinions about everything, and she was soon able to make them known. Almost every day she came running across the prairie to have her reading lesson with me. Mrs. Shimerda grumbled, but realized it was important that one member of the family should learn English’† (24). It is evident that Mrs. Shimerda did not like the idea of à ntonia learning English. But, she understood it was important for à ntonia to learn the language in order to adapt herself and to find herself in her new country and home, also this would help à ntonia to take care of her family as she felt it as an obligation. As à ntonia was evolving her English was growing with her and with this some traits of her personality too. As explained before in the paper, Jim had to move to Black Hawk due to study reasons, but it was not going to be a long time before à ntonia also moved to Black Hawk, but with different intentions from one’s of Jim. à ntonia moved to Black Hawk to get a job, here she runs into Jim and Lena again. Now in her adolescence Jim says that à ntonia has very good English, â€Å"Tony learned English so quickly that by the time school began she could speak as well as any of us† (107). This shows that à ntonia kept practicing English to improve herself, as she felt that was one way to become better to help her family, and now in Black Hawk and with her job it was evident how the improvement in her English helped her. However, à ntonia would began to attend to dances with her friend Lena and this would carry a lot of problems with it for her, including losing her job because she did not want to quit attending to dances as requested by her bosses. The story carried on and further ahead in the story, when Jim comes back from Lincoln and the time he spent at Harvard to finish his studies, he finds a happily married grown-up à ntonia with children. à ntonia had married a bohemian guy called Anton and now she has a family, and she is very happy with them. While Jim is talking with à ntonia, he notices that her English has become bad as it used to be when she was a child and she was learning it. à ntonia tells him that now she has many troubles with English because at home they speak almost only in Bohemian,  ´I cant think of what I want to say, youve got me so stirred up. And then, Ive forgot my English so. I dont often talk it any more. I tell the children I used to speak real well. She said they always spoke Bohemian at home. The little ones could not speak English at all—didnt learn it until they went to school† (224). Now in her adulthood à ntonia was really worried and a good mother as well as a good wife who take care of her family. Here is where the change that à ntonia suffered from childhood to adolescence to adulthood is characterized, how she passed from a little girl to a loving mother. Throughout this essay three fundamental characters that we find in the novel My à ntonia by the author Willa Cather have been characterized, these characters are: Lena Lingard, Jim Burden and à ntonia Shimerda. The characterization of these characters has been done under the perception of individualism that is represented with each one of them. This perception of individualism of the characters has been shown based on the pursuit for autonomy that each character went through. At the same time three different moments in characters lives were chosen to describe them; the childhood, adolescence and adulthood. These moments in characters lives were chosen because they are prior important stages in a person’s life. So, it was important to illustrate how the notion of individualism of each character could be characterized in these stages, taking into account crucial aspects that the characters faced in the search for themselves. Examples of these important aspects faced by the characters are a new country, language and culture in the case of Lena and à ntonia. Another example is the personal struggles of Jim as he attempts for autonomy in a rugged territory with strict moral codes.

Contemporary Theories of Crime

Contemporary Theories of Crime According to the history and development of the criminological theory, the knowledge of crime theory has a tendency to include the past criminological theory that has been developed before. For example the labeling theory has a great influence from Chicago school, Durkheim theory and concepts, and symbolic interactionism (Plummer) Theory has the particularity of being the subject of constant renewal, like most of the knowledge in our society. One way of expressing this characteristic is by Thomas Kuhn in his book: structure of scientific revolutions. What he express in his theory is how the knowledge considered as â€Å"normal science†, is in a continuum spiral, according to how theory explains reality inside the framework of paradigms. Once these paradigms reach a point in which they cannot explain reality, normal science reach the point of a crisis. To explain this crisis the paradigms of the normal science must change, summarizing what is usable by the anterior normal scien ce and adding the new knowledge in form of paradigms that explains reality (Kuhn). This is exactly what happens with criminological theory, but still, besides all the progress theory has done, crime is still something hard to attach to a whole theory, and the combination of theory perspectives seems to be the most viable way to express the phenomenon of crime. On the contemporary criminological theory, one the perspectives that has a good approach to the actual context of crime is labeling theory. The labeling theory refers to the attachment of labels to a specific person in society according to the role he has on it. For example someone who commits a crime is recognized by the group of people around him as a criminal. But is not only the person who commits a crime, someone who is accused of committing a crime, doesn’t necessarily have committed that crime, but still he gets the label. Labeling theory refers to the identity that other people confer to one person. This identity is expressed as a label. The labels are stigmas inside society[1] that people must carry. This leads to the other part of the theory. Labeling theory, besides confer a stigma to the members of a society, also tries to explain another aspect of criminological behavior by opening the possibility of change in criminal behavior[2]. The stigma is hard to remove, but this theory proposes a way of reintegrating the members considered abnormal[3]: shaming is the process in which the person submit himself to a treatment or circumstance in which he resigns socially to crime, allowing him to reintegrate to society as a normal subject. The support of this theory is that bring an enormous quantity of material observation in other aspects of society, providing and using the concepts that society uses to determine the subjects inside it. For example the use of labels that are not only related to crime. Another contemporary theory with a wide perspective and more accurately related to actual crime is the environmental theory. This theory has a very situational approach to crime, because it is based on the characteristics that a special place must have for crime to be something executed. Crime occurs within the intersection of a space, time, a motivated offender, an attractive target, and lack of guardianship (Francis T. Cullen). The approach of this situational context has also the inclusion into theory of the daily activities of society, demarking the situation and the possibility of decrease crime by nullifying the situations in which crime can be committed, according to the routine people has. This theory has an opening to set crime as something different from the theories used before the 60’s. The possibility of seeing crime as something that may happen in every context, changes the relations of a stigmatized person to a situational expression of crime. Crime becomes the main subject of study, not the context[4] or the person who commit crime. When in this theory it is said that the focus is on crime, still a lot of concepts and ideas are part of the theory. For instance, the influences of Chicago school of mapping and characterizing crime zones. One contemporary expression of the applications of this theory is the broken windows theory[5]. The third analyzed theory in this text is the Developmental theory. This theory proposes the approach on how crime is explained by the whole history of one subject, group, and society. Crime is attached to every life expression that has happened since birth. Having a research of the main aspects of one person’s life, the individual expression and social values get mixed as the theoretical approach explains crime. This mixture of social and individual behavior is what allows this theory to be one of the most wider and contemporary (Paris). This theory is most applied to young people[6] and it takes into account the perception of the people who commits crime and the people who are victims of a crime. As other contemporary theories, there is possibility of change in the criminological behavior, allowing the criminal to be a normal individual. Some authors explain three ways in which this theory is applied to specific situations. The first one is the continuity of behavior in life course. The second one is that life course behavior might change or continue during time and on its characteristics. And the third one is that the life course behavior continues and changes. This theory is a multiple perspective to analyze crime, by studying the things to take into account to set an idea of how crime develops inside society by the life course of individuals, making a reciprocal analysis of the individuality and collectivity. All together These three theories provide a wide range of analysis, if the three of them are put together there are a lot of factor that would be covered by these theories. Still is not like just mixing the three theories. Each theory has a valid point and perspective to take into account. For example, the developmental theory takes into account the life course, which is an abstraction of the material and real life of the people. It is really a manifestation of the influence of all the material aspects under the mirror of time. This approach is quite accurate to study specific phenomenon because the analysis is deeper in context and it show the influences of society altogether with the individual tendencies. The approach of this theory at certain ages is what restrains this theory to be used. Because of its focuses on age, their analysis perspective loses weight when it is tried to be used in studying different groups, and in the theory itself. This loss of weight is because one of the main cores of this theory is the social development related to biological development. One of the tendencies of these three theories is to provide an option to explain how crime can be changed. Proposing a solution, like the shaming theory[7], or proposing new safety procedures to secure the environment. All these three theories keep the opportunity of becoming a normal[8] citizen or member of a society. Still, besides of the solutions proposed, the praxis of a theory can be very different from what the expectations are. One of the characteristics of these theories, is that are short in context matters. This means that theoretical explanations are only based as maximum to a nation level[9], provoking that many of the structural and contextual representations in politics, economics, culture, education, etc., in the world, cannot be part of the theoretical analysis. But still these representations have their manifestations even in small communities. This is impossible to not take into account macro-tendencies, but it is possible just to focus in micro-tendencies, even if this does not explain a complete context. Labeling theory, as the developmental theory, is not a completely sentence of explanation, but the analysis perspective that is valuable of this perspective is precisely the idea of a label. With the consent or without it, people always make judgments and make labels to identify other people, and to be identified among society as an individual. What criminological theory does is to focus on the labels related to crime. This is a much attached way in which theory explains reality with constructions of reality from society. One of the characteristics of this theory is also that label is just a value granted for the people participant in society, and because of that, according to the social capital[10] and possibilities of change that people have, they might change their label at will. Another fact of this theory, but no so attached to social reality is one of the manifestations of this theory, because of the idea of shaming, not because is not possible, but because is sometimes a motor to commit more crimes in certain contexts. The environmental theory has the possibility of treating crime as a situation with a specific context and circumstances that must be accomplish for the crime to be committed. The focus on the crime as a main subject allows this theory to be the bond for the combination of the other three theories, increasing the possibility of explanation and praxis that these theory have in total. These theoretical perspectives allow taking into account the elements of developmental theory, and use them together in the same explanations or theory. Of course in this conjunction of works, the aspects that restrain developmental theory must not be taken into account. The same goes for the labeling theory. Environmental theory has the possibility of being the connection between the individual perspective of crime in labeling and developmental theory, but at the same time it takes into account the idea of generality prescribed in both. Together with the perspective that environmental theory uses of situational context, crime becomes a definition with a lot of defined perspectives. Using the idea of label and the identity factor to set inside society, and as a representation to the outside society, the idea of crime explains one side of the individual behavior, by the representation that people has during a certain act. The environmental theory explains the event expressed as crime according to the material context in which people lives, but also making reference to another expression of behavioral crime conduct. Using some perspectives of the developmental theory, the factor explained before is part of a whole construction of life, providing a deeply analysis of a crime event, circumstance, conduct, behavior, context, social representation, and manifestation. Contexts and explanations The idea of the scientific revolutions explained at the beginning of the text, is to express one of the situation in which crime theory can be expressed more attached to explain reality. In case of the criminological theories, the perspectives are as many as a bunch. In the whole package of theories, the time has played a main role to develop each theory as the knowledge in crime situations and circumstances becomes wider. But there is a moment, and had happened before, that theory needs a new view and perspective. The citations and influences of the theories in the XIX are immersed in the theories of the XX, and now the contemporary theories are making improvements to explain by new paradigms the new circumstances that involve crime in our society. This, according to Kuhn’s idea, is the traditional process of making the scientific revolution. That is why is importance to pose a new circumstance that provokes a crisis in the criminological theory. Using these three theories may provide a great angle of perspective to analyze a concrete situation. But still the theories are short when it comes to practice. For example: the Mexican context. At first sight is a country like any other, but their main economic and political relations are with United States. The country has a first sight corruption; the police[11] are one of the main actors in these situations and are colluding with the narco[12]. The country is subject of constant violence, but the government is unable to solve the situation, because of the illegal trades and agreements that had surpassed the government power politically and economically. This is at macro-scale, but a micro-scale is almost the same, with the addition that is the poor people who gets involved in this violent context to have something to eat every day. So, how can these three theories make an approach to the context of Mexico? Evidently the crime is on one of the highest rates of Mexican history nowadays. But what is the work of the criminological theory when the established law steps aside and leaves the path to the everyday survival law? Criminological theory must be applied to the context in which it must[13]  be an explanation that requires a reaction from people. Criminological theory as it is right now, does not have the possibility of explaining the events that are happening in the world like Islamic State, Mexico’s violence, Ukraine war, and more. Criminological theory is being insufficient for the fast and changing environment in the world. The implications are every time wide in economy, politics, culture, etc. Using the actual theories to explain crime[14] may explain some aspects of reality, but recovering just the important aspects of each theory does not lead to a complete explanation and possibility of chang e of the real context. Being transdisciplinary is one of the new paradigms that criminological theory can use. Not closing the explanations of the criminal world to just the criminal theory. The possible revolution that criminology as a theoretical science can have is to be at the time of the context. References: Francis T. Cullen, Robert Agnew, Pamela Wilcox. Criminological theory: past to present. New York: Oxford university press, 2007. Kuhn, Thomas. Estructura de las recoluciones cientificas. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 2006. Paris, Jessica. Environmental criminolgy and crime prevention. n.d. http://legacy.usfsm.edu/academics/cas/capstone/2010-2011/criminology/paris-environmental criminology intel led policing.pdf?from=404. 29 09 2014. Plummer, Ken. Labeling theory. University of Essex, United Kingdom, 29 09 2014. http://www.sjsu.edu/people/james.lee/courses/soci152/s1/ajreading10labeling.pdf . 27 09 2014. [1] According to the criminological theory, this is focused on crime. [2] This is an implication that this theory has when is applied to explain crime. The results vary, because of personal behavior, situations, and social strains. Even, instead of reducing crime, these implications can even increase it. [3] Those who are consider criminals. [4] This does not mean that context is not taken into account. [5] The maintaining and safety control of urban environments may be a big influence to stop crimes. [6] There is a graphic that represents the main ages in which crime occur that set the age of 10 as the beginning and 20 when the young people stop committing crime. [7] Emphasize on social punishment to provoke shame. It focuses on the behavior on the offender. [8] According to the establishments of what normal is, and also if crime is considered as something abnormal. [9] Contextually, this is a big spectrum, but the political tendencies, economics, society and culture, in which crime is a subject of constant representation, are bigger than the idea of a nation. [10] Explained deeply in â€Å"Two concepts of social capital: Bourdieu vs. Putnam† By Martti Siisiasen, Department of Philosophy, Trinity College, Dublin Ireland. From: http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.istr.org/resource/resmgr/working_papers_dublin/siisiainen.pdf [11] The public force that most stop the crime and apprehend the offenders. [12] Production and commerce of drugs, and traffic of people. [13] The using of this word emphasizes a moral reaction against crime. This must be included as a factor that may change according to the context. [14] Under the look of a moral conception of good and evil.

William Blake Essay -- Biography Blake Poet Poetry Essayas

William Blake The poet, painter and engraver, William Blake was born in 1757, to a London haberdasher. Blake’s only formal education was in art. At the age of ten, he entered a drawing school and then at the age of fourteen, he apprenticed to an engraver. ( Abrams & Stillinger 18). Although, much of Blake’s time was spent studying art, he enjoyed reading and soon began to write poetry. Blake’s first book of poems, Poetical Sketches, "showed his dissatisfaction with the reigning poetic tradition and his restless quest for new forms and techniques" ( Abrams & Stillinger 19). Poetical Sketches, was followed by many other works including, Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. These series were accompanied by etchings, which depict each of the poems in the two books. Blake was such a revolutionary poet because he used visual agents to emphasize and express his poetry as he set the standards for the Romantic Era in poetry. Blake was influenced by religion very early in his life. "At the age of ten, Blake tried to convince his father that he had seen angels in a tree, and, he asserted through the rest of his life, that he spoke with many of the spirits, angels and devils that he wrote about" (Union 1). Blake’s strong religious faith has a great impact on his life and we can see the religious overtones in much of his work. Blake was a strong believer of the spirit world, which enables us to relate his work to the Romantic poet’s incorporation of an imminent god into their poetry. The Romantic form of poetry gained its popularity in the late 18’th century. "Romanticism can be seen as a rejection of the precepts of order, calm, harmony, balance, idealization and rationality that typified Classicism in general and late 18’th... ...rd Edition, New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1994. Downie, Daniel. "The Toils of Los: Complete Written Works of Blake with Illustrations And Art. Blake Web. <20 November 1999> http://198.247.176.53 Goetz, Philip W. "Religious Symbolism and Iconography" Britannica Encyclopedia Vol. 26. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1995, 29. Harden, Mark & Carol Gerten-Jackson. America Online. <22 October 1999> http://sunsite.sut.ac.jp/wm/paint/auth/blake/ Marcotte, Adam. "The Optimistic Lineage of William Blake: Songs of Experience and The Book of Urizen Revisited" Class Paper, SUNY Cortland. July 30, 1996. "Babynames" 1996-1999. <20 November 1999> www.babynames.com "Blake: Man, Writer, Thinker, Artisan" Online. <20 October 1999> www.vu.union.edu/~blake/life/html "Romanticism" <22 October 1999> http://sunsite.sut.ac.jp/wm/paint/glo/romanticism

Illegal trade in animals and animal parts in south east asia Essay

The illegal trade in exotic fauna and animal parts is the third largest illegal business globally: second only to narcotics trafficking and human trafficking. South East Asia is increasingly becoming the centre of the animal trade both in the procurement stage and as a transit point, where deals are brokered and sales are made. This trade has had a significant impact on a fragile ecosystem already threatened by human-environment conflict. Most tropical forests are already experiencing ‘empty forest’  syndrome, characterised by the absence of fauna. South East Asia has a culinary tradition of consuming exotic animals. Animal parts are also used in traditional Chinese and South Asian medicine. The already dwindling animal population is under further pressure by the trade in protected species and animal parts. Bangkok has gained the dubious reputation as the leading city in this illegal trade. The markets of the city are teeming with numerous pet shops selling everything from puppies, avian fauna and marine life. Most of these shops are front shops where unscrupulous deals are brokered for trade in protected species. Chatuchak weekend market displays various forms of exotic animals, ranging from Burmese pythons, birds of paradise, red pandas and freshwater turtles, all of them protected species. This paper aims to explore the magnitude of the problem, by analysing expert opinions on the issue. In addition the laws involved in regulating the trade in the region will be scrutinised. Lastly the paper will suggest possible solutions to this heinuous problem. In the process the paper aims to highlight the environmental concerns of conservationist groups and global bodies like the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), TRAFFICK and the Environmental Investigation Agency. The trade is also of a global nature as a lot of animal parts are sourced from Africa. These products eventually make their way to affluent households in South East Asia and China. This paper also aims to highlight the hunter, trafficker, political patrons and trader nexus. For example ivory trade is legal in Thailand; however, most of the ivory that is traded is sourced directly from Africa. Once a key source for the exotic pet trade itself, today Thailand is more important as a major hub in the global network of suppliers and dealers. Between 2003 and 2005, US$165 million worth of illegally traded wildlife and plants were confiscated in Thailand, including more than 55,000 live animals. The driving factor of this illegal trade is customer demand for exotic animals, with buyers often lacking an understanding of the price that nature pays for collecting exotic species. In many cases, buyers do not know or care about the well being of the animals, and are indifferent to their suffering and inhumane treatment. The trade can only be countered by vigilant monitoring of the porous borders of South East Asian nations and by increasing human awareness about the issue. If this problem is not addressed, future generations will suffer due to the  skewed ecosystem that they inherited from previous generations. RESEARCH QUESTIONS While acknowledging the highly serious nature of the illegal wildlife trade, prevalent across Southeast Asia, this paper focuses on the scale, magnitude and threat this trade can cause to the ecological balance of the region. To what extent this trade has caused pressure on the social and economic balance of the region? Has economic disparity caused this catastrophe? What are the driving factors behind the trade? Are the reasons primarily cultural or are they mainly economic, driven by the massive profits? Are the preventive laws in place effective in curbing the menace? The answers to these questions will require an understanding of the myriad actors involved in this trade. An understanding of the history and cultural motivations of the people of the region is also imperative. METHODOLOGY Various articles published by conservationists well-versed in the wildlife trade are utilised in compiling this paper. Case studies pertaining to the illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam and Laos have also been used as points of research. Most of the articles used in this paper have been retrieved from the Internet. However a number of articles have been extracted from newspaper archives and also from books on conservation. Research was also combined with conversations and discussions with wildlife conservation experts in Thailand, Vietnam and Nepal LIMITATIONS OF THE PAPER The lack of accurate data due to the illegal nature of the trade is the biggest hindrance in figuring out the magnitude of the trade. Due to the covert nature of the trade it is near impossible to get first-hand accounts of people involved. The lack of access to libraries and inaccurate information by Thailand’s forest department are other setbacks. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The primary source reviewed is a study prepared by the Rural Development, Natural Resources and Environment Sector unit of East Asia (EASRE) in collaboration with TRAFFIC, which was funded by The World Bank-Netherlands Partnership Fund (BNPP) (October, 2008). The study involves questionnaires prepared by 89 experts on the wildlife trade. The study states that the wildlife trade is of significant importance in South East Asia involving wide and complex networks for both sourcing and marketing and involves a diverse range of actors, including rural harvesters, professional hunters, a wide variety of intermediate traders, wholesalers and retailers, up to the final consumers of wildlife many of whom live thousands of miles away from the product source. The wildlife trade may also undermine efforts to achieve sustainable development and poverty alleviation in the region due to depleting valuable natural resources on which millions of people depend. The Singapore book of International Law and Contributors (Lin, 2005) gives a detailed description of the preventive laws and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) to which ASEAN is a signatory of. Lin argues that illegal trade is not just an environmental problem, but its impact spills over to other social concerns. Further, illegal trade in animals goes hand in hand with other transnational crimes such as narcotic and human trafficking. The creation of a permit system to regulate the international trade in species has also created opportunities for evasion of the system as criminal entities seek to exploit loopholes in the regulatory system. Engelsberg, (2007) writes of the inability of the authorities to monitor the wildlife trade in Chatuchak market. This is due to the presence of a strong network of informers who tip off the traders. Engelsberg details the connection between legitimate pet shops and the behind the scenes vehicles where the protected species to be traded are hidden. According to Wild Aid Thailand, up to one million native and exotic birds are sold every  year in Chatuchak. Sullivan (November, 2003) says that the magnitude of the problem of illicit trafficking in exotic species is huge, because forests are like an unguarded bank. Every single product in the forest is of value, particularly the wildlife because they command a high price. Accessibility to the forests has led to an increase in wildlife trade. The focus of Social Implications of the Wildlife Trade by Singh (2004) is on Laos. This source writes about contrasting views among policy makers and law enforcement agencies, and their unwillingness to apprehend individuals involved in the protected species trade which has led to a constant decline in wildlife in Laotian forests. This lax enforcement has also led to an erosion in moral values with hunters looking for illegal and alternative means to traffic wildlife, thus causing social conflicts and leading to the formation of illegal trafficking gangs. This has seriously threatened the social fabric of Laotian society. Felbab-Brown (June, 2011) highlights the importance of providing alternative livelihood to hunters and poachers. As most hunters are highly marginalised and often desperately poor, focusing on finding legal livelihoods can be an important component of policy interventions to reduce the wildlife trade. Previous efforts of appointing ex-poachers as forest rangers have failed because the economic profits of the wildlife trade are far greater than a forest ranger’s salary. Thus, some rangers continue to operate as poachers. Felbab-Brown concludes that the only solution lies in tackling demand for endangered species. This underscores the added urgency to engage the Chinese government to reining demand in the domestic market. A TRAFFIC Report (2011) found that many of the interventions that have been employed to control illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade in Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos and Vietnam are believed to have been at least partially successful, although beliefs on the level of effectiveness varied among experts. However, based on survey responses and information from the literature, assumptions made about economic and social drivers in the design  of intervention approaches may in some cases be misplaced. The report also suggested that there are needs both to improve available data and knowledge about the wildlife trade, and to make this information more practical, policy relevant and more accessible to planners and decision makers. The report also urges governments across South East Asia to take a proactive stand towards the conservation efforts. The Teaching Ecology Newsletter (Fall, 2011) highlights the plight of pangolins. This article states that Chinese pangolins were once the primary target of smugglers but because population density is so low the smugglers have switched to the Malayan pangolin. This shy mammal is largely caught by smugglers in Malaysia and Indonesia then shipped back to tthe black market in China where they are eaten or used in traditional medicine. This article highlights the perceived medicinal value of the animal. Pangolin scales are a popular herbal remedy in China, Vietnam and Korea. The scales are believed to cure toxins, inflammation, rheumatic pain and are also used as an aphrodisiac. Furthermore, pangolins are also stuffed and sold for decoration. An article in chm.asean.biodiversity.org (2010) talks about the extent of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. In addition to threats brought about by known and quantifiable stresses, illegal-unreported-and-unregulated fishing is an blatant aggravating impediment to all attempts to manage fisheries resources and fish stocks in the region. Fish populations tend to remain constant under normal conditions and decline, in most cases, due to overfishing. The article focuses on the growing demand for fisheries resources, the increase in the numbers of fishers and vessels, and the efficiency of modern fishing gear, all of which contributes to the inability of these resources to recover. Moreover, the reduced availability of fisheries resources increases competition, and prods players to resort to illegal, and more efficient forms of fishing. The lack of capacity of the ASEAN to monitor highly mobile fishing vessels and deliberate poaching from both in-country and those coming from neighbouring countries makes it next to impossible to quantify the level and extent of  IUU fishing. A recent report estimated the value of IUU fishing at the global scale to be between US$ 10 to 23.5 billion annually. Information in the same report attributes Philippine losses in 2008 to the amount of US$ 600 million to poaching by foreign vessels and blast- and cyanide-fishing. The bushmeat crisis is highlighted in chm.biodiversity.org (2010). The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force reported that while habitat loss is often cited as the primary threat to wildlife, commercial hunting for the meat of wild animals has become the most significant immediate threat to the future of wildlife all over the world. The task force refers to bushmeat hunting as a crisis because it is rapidly expanding. Species which were previously not at risk are now threatened due largely to an increase in commercial logging, opening up an infrastructure of roads and trucks that links forests and hunters to cities and consumers. Drury (2009) states that wildlife depletion has serious implications for world food security and contributes directly to human livelihoods, healthcare and economics, particularly important for the poorest households. Over exploitation of wildlife threatens not only biodiversity but also those who depend on it for upholding water security, maintaining forest structure and increasing agricultural productivity. Drury also argues that wildlife trade encourages novel zoonotic infections through â€Å"unnatural cross exposure of species through human intervention†. HIV is one such case which has reached epic proportions among the human population. The SARS epidemic of 2003 is also believed to have originated in the wildlife conflicts of South China. The article not only emphasises the need to influence public values to stigmatise consumption behaviour but also argues that the process of altering human behavioural psychology is a tedious and time consuming process. Newer (2011), speaks about the exploitation of animal ingredients in traditional Chinese medicines especially about the use of tiger bones and other tiger parts in the cure of various diseases ranging from impotency  to asthma. Newer also speaks about the global nexus of Chinese medicine highlighting the capture of 469 seizures of tiger products in the US between 2000-2009. A report published in the Science Daily (March,2010) gives a description of the role of the porous borders between Myanmar and China in the facilitation of the wildlife trade. The article says that due to the large and unmanned nature of the China-Myanmar border, poachers in Myanmar are increasingly exporting wildlife products into China. Another report published in the Science Daily (July, 2008) highlights a research conducted in seven major cities across China to gauge attitudes of the Chinese towards the consumption of tiger parts as medicine or otherwise. A whopping 43% of the respondents admitted to consuming products they believe contained tiger parts. However, another study by the same group found that 88% of the respondents were aware that buying tiger products is illegal and 93% agreed that China’s ban was necessary to ensure a future for wild tigers. Nijman (2009) reports on the trade of orangutans, gibbons and other primates in Sumatra, Indonesia and highlights the attention given to primates by animal welfare groups and conservationists vis-a vis the animal trade. Orangutans and gibbons are being transported over large distances to other areas while waiting in transit at docks or warehouses. Nijman states that the population of gibbons had reduced by 50% between 1980 and 2005 and that of orangutans by nearly 35% during the same period. The study talks of the continuous human pressure on female orangutans with babies. The normal procedure is to kill the female to get a baby. A safe estimate is that for every one orangutan brought out and sold to a dealer, three more have been killed. NARRATIVE The single greatest threat to the ecological balance of the planet  is the illegal trade in wildlife and animal parts. Habitat loss has been pushed to a distant second due to the indiscriminate and ruthless nature of the illegal species trade. Today the illicit trade is valued at anywhere between US$ 6 to 10 billion annually. According to conservationists the problem is most acute in South East Asia. There is no single reason that one can pinpoint for this phenomena. Instead there exists a complex combination of socio-economic, cultural and political motivations that drive the animal trade in South East Asia. In the last five years, the World Bank has approved nearly 50 projects directly or indirectly related to biodiversity conservation in East and Southeast Asia, accounting for some US$310 million of financing (Sanghvi,2009). However, there is a growing realization that these investments are being seriously compromised by the illegal wildlife trade, and that as a result the region’s forests are increasingly empty of the wildlife that makes them so unique. The effectiveness of these projects is threatened by the absence of binding wildlife regulations and implementing bodies. The region is a centre for the consumption of wildlife derivatives. In terms of export of wildlife the region is the largest exporter of wildlife to the international market as well. Kashmira Kakati of WWF (November,2011), Nepal says that the illegal wildlife trade consists of a complex web of trade routes and traders that form a chain which passes via South East Asia through Burma, Bhutan, Nepal and Tibet to mainland China where demand is optimum. As head of rhino and elephant conservation in Nepal, Kakati is most concerned about the illegal ivory that is being traded. Ivory is sourced from as far as nations like Malawi and Botswana and is integrated to the ivory market in Thailand where the trade is legal. Often the ivory is transported in private chartered aircraft and which is an indicator of the profits that the illegal ivory trade provides. In Africa, poaching helicopters fly above the wildlife reserves owing to the lack of forest guards, these swoop down, shoot elephants and saw the tusks off. In an instant the helicopters fly away making it very difficult for law enforcement agencies to track the offenders and punish them. South East Asia surpassing habitat loss as the number one danger. South east asia has been experiencing an economic boom. Households have experienced greater buying power and lifestyles have increased dramatically. As a result, this rapid economic growth has led to an increase in the illegal wildlife trade. The culinary traditions of the region include eating a number of protected species. Traditional medicine which includes those that consist of tiger and bear parts is extremely popular in the region. In addition, a large number of animals are traded to be kept as pets or trophies. As a result of rapid economic growth, the demand for natural resources such as land, timber and nontimber forest resources has exploded across Asia. Moreover, the East and Southeast Asia region is a center for the consumption of wildlife derivatives, ranging from tiger bone medicines to shark fin cuisine. The region is also a key supplier to the international wildlife market, both legal and illegal. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is the biggest driver of the illegal wildlife trade. It is a 3000 year old tradition and is used by a large population in China as well as elsewhere in south east Asia. Tiger parts are used extensively to produce medicines for impotency, heart pain and congestion in the lungs, while bear bile is used to produce medicines for delusional diseases and to reduce pregnancy pains. TCM is also popular in the United States as is evident from the capture of more than 3000 medicines consisting of tiger derivatives in Seattle in 2007 (TRAFFIC, 2007). This goes to show the increasing global network of the illegal wildlife trade. This has led to unsustainable levels of exploitation for many of the region’s most charismatic and endangered species. The region’s forests are increasingly silent, empty of the wildlife that makes them so unique. Vivek Menon of TRAFFIC (November,2011), says that the trade in Thailand is generally conducted in legitimate pet shops and otherwise through a network of mobile suppliers. As such animals are sourced primarily from Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam making their way to the wildlife markets in Thailand from where they are transported into China. In the case of the illegal trade in tiger parts, most of the parts are sourced from India and Nepal from where they are transported via Myanmar into Thailand and eventually traded in southern China. The transportation is made possible  due to the presence of long and porous borders where law enforcement is negligible. Government authorities are frequently involved in the illegal wildlife trade. The poachers often bribe the authorities enabling the safe passage of the cache of animal parts across borders. The wildlife trade in Sout Eeast Asia has a long history. Plants and animals were traded in Cambodia from as long back as the 10th century(Martin and Phipps, 1996). Most of the animals were traded to the rulers of Burma and Thailand. In Vietnam wildlife was presented as pets to the emperors of China (Nash, 1997). The French explorer Garnier, on his travels to Laos in the 1960s, observed a flourishing wildlife trade in the country which included elephant ivory, rhinoceros horn, peafowl feathers, and animal bone (Garnier, 1869-85). In the 1970s, the Khmer Rouge come to power in Cambodia. Along with human rights abuses the regime traded nearly US$25 million worth of wild animal parts to the Chinese for weapons and supplies (Nooren and Claridge, 2001) The Greater Mekong region which consists of the countries of Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Lao PDR and China has witnessed the most intensive wildlife trade anywhere in the world (Nooren and Claridge, 2003). The reasons include cultural motivations as well as economic drivers. It is estimated that the wildlife trade is more profitable than the illicit narcotics trade. This is primarily because there are no production costs involved in the wildlife trade. This makes it highly viable to racketeers and also to the economically challenged population that is looking to make quick profits. The motivations might differ but the volume of the wildlife trade is threatening the ecological diversity of the region on an unprecedented scale. For example, Lao PDR saw a massive increase in the population of rats. Wildlife conservationists stated the cause to be the drastic reduction in the number of snakes in the country. In Vietnam the large scale trade in illicit timber has caused an increase in the amount and regularity of floods in the country. The increase in the poaching of predators in Myanmar has increased the number of deer in the country. As a result the people in the rural areas of the country have made deer meat a staple in their diet. In the early 1990s, the illegal wildlife trade in Vietnam was conservatively estimated at $24 million annually. In 2002, it was estimated at US$66.5 million. In 1999 and 2000, approximately 25 tons of wild freshwater turtles and tortoises were caught and exported each week from northern Sumatra to China (Shepherd, 2000). Despite continued demand, as turtles become harder to find, this trade has dropped to seven to ten tons per week. This is a clear indicator of the near extinction of many species of freshwater turtles. Although exact numbers are not available it is estimated that nearly a ton of freshwater turtles are traded even today. At this rate conservationists say that every species of freshwater turtles will be extinct by the year 2025. In Thailand in 2003, a one day raid on Bangkok’s Chatuchak market seized 1,000 protected species worth $1.25 million. In early 2004, Chinese law enforcement seized the skins of 31 tigers—today there are only 50 tigers estimated to be left in the wild in China. THAILAND AS THE PRIMARY PLAYER Thailand’s wildlife resources are all but extinct. Whatever little exists lives in protected forests. Due to the boom in tourism in Thailand, the centre has emerged as one of the wealthiest nations in the area. The increase in purchasing power has contributed to Thai nationals being among the largest consumers of wildlife and wildlife products in the world. Most of the key actors in the illegal wildlife trade in South East Asia are also Thai, wheather it be the trafficker, the trader or the front agencies. Wildlife trade surveys conducted along the border areas between Thailand and Myanmar, Lao PDR,, and Cambodia since 1990, for example, identified Thai nationals as among the principal consumers of those countries’ wildlife products (Srikosamatara et al., 1992; Nooren and Claridge, 2001). In 1991, Thailand was considered by international conservation organizations as the center of Southeast Asia’s illegal wildlife trade (Srikosamatara et al,1992). Thailand’s topography is extremely diverse. Northern Thailand is dominated by the Dawna Tasserim mountain range which is an extension of the southern Himalayan range and borders Myanmar. The central part of the country is fed by the Chao Phraya river and is dominated by paddy plantations. The egrets that dot the rice fields are practically the last surviving wild creatures in this part of the region. The north and northeast are dominated by the Mekong river which links the country to its neighbouring countries. The south of the country is primarily a coastal region. Thailand is home to six species of venomous snakes: common cobra, king cobra, banded krait, Malayan viper, green viper and Russell’s pit viper. The black monitor, which looks like a miniature dinosaur live in some jungles of southern Thailand. In the 1990s it was estimated that more than 500 tigers roamed the jungles of Thailand. According to the forest department less than 200 remain. Extensive poaching and lack of law enforcement lead to the drastic decrease in the numbers. The fine for killing a tiger is 15,000 Bhat with or punishment up to two years. Well-connected poachers and traders are not deterred by the weak fines and often are let out on bail, if and when they are caught. The trade of ivory is legal in Thailand though it is banned in China, this makes poaching elephants an extremely lucrative business. The failure of the government to ban the ivory trade has ensured the number of wild elephants has more than halved from an estimated 5000 in 1992 to about a couple of thousand today (TRAFFIC, 2008). Nearly 15% of Thailand is marked as protected area with over 100 national parks and nearly 1000 â€Å"non-hunting† sanctuaries. Despite this Thailand remains the world’s hotspot for the illegal wildlife trade. The primary reason remains the weak wildlife conservation laws and deterrents. NGO’S like TRAFFIC, Overland, WWF and Bird Conservation Society of Thailand work at conservation of Thailand’s diverse flora and and fauna and also work towards influencing government policy on safeguarding wildlife. Recently more than 50 airport staff from the Hat Yai and Suvarnabhumi airport (including check-in counter attendants, baggage handlers, customs and immigration officers, police and security officers) received intensive training in detecting and illegal wildlife being transported from those airports. TRAFFIC and government officials provided the training over a period of four days on topics such as CITES, illegal wildlife trade relevant national laws, identifying plant and  animal species and ways to detect smuggling operations. This shows a strong intent on behalf of the Thai government to curb the illegal wildlife trade. If a species has a marketable value that is greater than the marginal cost of harvesting that species, it is traded. The most significant trade is in the bushmeat area. In rural Lao PDR, Myanmar and Cambodia, bushmeat is an integral part of everyday cuisine. Deer meat, pangolin meat and mongoose meat are extremely popular in the region. Today, as the number of large animals has dwindled almost to nothing, the most visible trade flows are in smaller mammals, reptiles, fish, and plants. While information on the exact numbers of these species is difficult to obtain, available evidence suggests that even these relatively abundant species are beginning to be seriously affected by the trade. This poses a challenge to conservationists and government forest departments to enforce wildlife protection laws. Tigers. In Sumatra, approximately 51 tigers were killed each year between 1998 and 2002 (Shepherd and Magnus, 2004)—out of a total population of approximately 800 individuals before 1998. The majority of the parts were traded in China. Between June 2003 and April 2004, seven tigers were killed in north eastern Lao PDR; their bones reportedly were traded for over $50,000 (WCS/TRAFFIC August 2004). It is estimated that less than 400 wild tigers remain across the region. A majority of them live in wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. The number of wild tigers in the non-protected forests of the region is negligible Pangolins. According to CITES trade data, between 1993 and 2003 over 80,000 pangolin skins were illegally exported from Lao PDR to international markets, primarily in the United States and Mexico. Over 15,000 pangolins were confiscated in Thailand in 2002, brought from Indonesia to Lao PDR and eventually China. Pangolin skins continue to be seized regularly in Malaysia, Thailand, Lao PDR, and Vietnam. Arriving by air from Malaysia,  more than four tons of wildlife, including water monitor lizards and over 600 pangolins, were seized in Hanoi, Vietnam, from March to April 2003 alone (C. Shepherd, TRAFFIC, September 2004). All available evidence suggests that they are disappearing throughout their natural range in Asia—largely as a result of the trade. There are nearly no pangolins in the wild in China and Thailand. Pangolins are highly in demand as trophy animals as well as for their meat. Freshwater turtles. Over 50 percent of Asia’s freshwater turtles (45 species) are now considered in danger of extinction in the immediate or near future as a direct result of over-exploitation for  trade that 10 million freshwater turtles (or 10,000 tons) are traded annually in East Asia for use in food and traditional medicine (TRAFFIC Southeast Asia,2008). Six tons of wild-caught freshwater turtles were seized in Hanoi, Vietnam in March 2003. They had been exported by air using false permits from Malaysia (C. Shepherd, TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, September 2004). In 1999 and 2000, approximately 25 tons of wild freshwater turtles and tortoises were caught and exported each week from northern Sumatra to China (Shepherd, 2000). Marine turtles. Due to the lack of available data on marine turtles they have become a favourable target of poachers. Fishermen lay nets in specific areas in the sea and harvest nearly 5 tons of these turtles every week. These turtles are then sold either as pets or for their meat Almost 30,000 items made from the critically endangered Hawksbill Turtle were found on sale in Vietnam in 2002 (TRAFFIC Southeast Asia Indochina, 2004), signalling the death of thousands of these marine creatures. Water snakes. From 1999 to 2000, over 8,500 water snakes representing five different species were estimated harvested per day from Cambodia’s Tonle Sap, primarily for local subsistence and trade, possibly representing the greatest commercial exploitation of snakes in the world (Stuart et al., 2000). Water snakes are highly in demand to be showcased as pets in aquariums. Their non-venomous nature has also contributed to their value as pets. Seahorses. An estimated 20 million seahorses are taken annually from the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand, of which 95 percent are destined for China for use in the traditional medicine industry, according to Project Seahorse (Gray, 2004). These adorable animals are also used as pets and for their meat. Characteristics of the Trade Illegal domestic and international wildlife trade is a commodity business driven by a wide variety of socioeconomic and cultural forces. The primary reasons are the increase in connectivity, the increase in access to markets and the rise in purchasing power and economic development in the region. The relationship between the different actors in the trade keeps changing. The harvestors are often marginal farmers operating in the rural areas of the region. At other times professional hunters armed with sophisticated weapons and efficient means of transport play the role of procurers. Traders rapidly adapt to changing circumstances to maintain their substantial income. When supplies become depleted or access restrictions are imposed, they respond by: †¢Targeting new source areas or countries for a particular species or group of species. Since the pangolin is nearly extinct in the GMS region today, they are imported from Malaysia and Indonesia.(TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, 2004). This shift is a clear indicator of the complexity and sophisticated planning of the poachers. †¢Developing new smuggling methods and routes to avoid detection. During the boom in prices of bear bile and bear parts in Vietnam in the early 2000s, smuggling of bears was accomplished by fake army vehicles, fake funerals, and even fake ambulances complete with the bear dressed as a patient and surrounded by concerned relatives (SFNC, 2003). Leopard skins are sewn inside carpets when they are transported from Burma to the wild life markets of Thailand. †¢ Exploiting weak wildlife law enforcement. Wildlife is relabelled to convince customs officials that rare species are actually common species that are legal to trade and that only when they are actually caught in possession of wildlife. Law enforcement authorities are often bribed or are part other smuggling teams themselves. Many politicians patronize the poachers and the traders. Even when caught, fines and other penalties are generally much less than the risk premiums gained from the trade, negating their effectiveness as disincentives. †¢Targeting new species within a commodity group.  The dip in the availability of pangolins brought up a massive increase in the number of mongoose traded. The scarcity of boa constrictors instigated the number of Burmese pythons that are hunted. The scarcity of langur (leaf monkey) bones for the medicinal trade has led to a rise in the collection and sale of macaque bones; although the latter are considered less effective in traditional remedies (SFNC, 2003), the similarities between the bones are enough to either at best deceive or at least satisfy customers and in so doing, maintain the market. As wildlife law enforcement efforts increase, the illegal trade moves underground. It becomes more difficult to monitor activity, or determine the quantities, value, or number of species involved. Roles Played by Nations in South East Asia CHINA China is the region’s largest consumer, particularly of animal and plant products used as food and ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine. Demand for the illegal wildlife trade is mainly driven by traditional Chinese medicine. CAMBODIA Cambodia is primarily a source country, particularly for reptiles, primates, and plants, and formerly for timber. VIETNAM Vietnam was primarily a source nation but due to its rapid economic developments it is increasingly becoming a consumer nation. It is also an important link in the trade route to China THAILAND Thailand is particularly a consumer of high-value pets, trophies, and food products, while also playing an important role as a regional and transit point for the international market. MYANMAR AND LAO PDR Lao PDR and Myanmar are the biggest source for the procurement of wildlife. Both countries are important transit points ; Myanmar for wildlife products coming Thailand from the Indian subcontinent, and Lao PDR to international markets in neighboring nations (China, Vietnam, and Thailand). The illegal wildlife trade goes hand in hand with the illegal drug trade.The report issued by the US Drug Enforcement Agency states that narcotics were being transported across the US-Mexico border hidden in the bellies and body parts of animals. This gives further leverage to the traffickers who are armed with more money and resources provided by the drug cartels. This provides a dual threat for enforcement agencies. Often the animals are fed  miniature packets of drugs and are killed on arrival after which the drugs are retrieved. This has created specialised gangs that operate in many different stages. Preventive Laws and Regulations CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is an international multiparty treaty drafted in 1963 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The primary objective of CITES is the conservation of animals and plants that are threatened by the illegal wildlife trade. It provides varied degrees of protection to 33,000 species of plants and animals. It is one of the largest conservation agreements in existence. Countries are not bound to sign it, however, those that have ratified it are bound to follow the regulations of CITES. It, however does not replace national laws that are already in existence. It provides a framework to nations for the formulation of national laws. Often regulatory laws are non-existent or the penalty does not match the gravity of the crime. Most nations do not have significant laws pertaining to wildlife trade. About 5000 species of animals and 28000 species of plants are protected by various degrees and are listed in three categories that are called Appendices (TRAFFIC,2009). Amendments to the agreement must be supported by a two thirds majority. There are various criticisms of CITES. Foremost among those is that it does not address other core concerns like habitat loss. It focuses primarily on trade and ignores other factors that can cause the extinction of a certain species. Another criticism is that it allows trade of species if the requisite permits and licenses are acquired. That being said only one species that was listed in CITES, the Spix’s Macaw has become extinct (CITES. (n.d.). http://www.cites.org). Recommendations and Conclusion The largest driver of the illegal wildlife trade in Southeast Asia is the nearly insatiable demand for exotic fauna as culinary items, in  traditional Chinese medicine and as trophies. A sea change in attitudes towards wildlife consumption is possibly the only probable solution to stop the illicit trade in protected species. Educational campaigns aimed at stigmatizing wildlife consumption need to be enforced at different levels of society, including at schools, workplaces and at public forums. When demand exists there is bound to be a supply. The illicit wildlife trade is primarily a transnational crime which is being facilitated by greater connectivity among the nations in the GMS region and the lack of any form law enforcement pertaining to wildlife across the borders. A multipronged international vigilance agency which can monitor illicit wildlife trade at different levels will help curb the trade by significant numbers. For the unique wildlife of Southeast Asia to survive, it is imperative to engage poachers, hunters and gatherers, who are often from the margins of society and the lowest in the hierarchy among the many actors of the wildlife trade, to disengage their illegal activities. A need to provide them with alternative and economically sustainable livelihoods that directly affect the number of species available in the illegal wildlife market. Another good idea would be to focus on the value that wildlife has in its natural surroundings. Opening up of sanctuaries and national parks where the villagers, indigenous people, hunters and gatherers are appointed as rangers and tourist guides can provide economic benefits to this section of people, thus making them responsible for the preservation of the forests and the wildlife in it even if merely for economic reasons. Like in the case of the environment and carbon credits monetary incentives have proved to be the best way to prevent illegal activity. The unique biodiversity if Southeast Asia is under severe threat from the large magnitude of illegal wildlife trade taking place in the region. Unless preventive laws are strengthened and greater co-operation among states is achieved, the ecological imbalance caused may prove to be irreversible. This paper briefly examined the cultural and historical reasons that drive the demand for the illicit species trade. It also examined the roles played by different states involved in wildlife trade while also focusing on the hierarchy of the different actors involved in the trade. While examining different factors and aspects of the trade, it is easy to determine the eventual harm this menace can cause to the lives and livelihoods of the poorest inhabitants of the region. In the absence of strong monitoring and vigilance this trade could forever alter the topography of the region. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) which all ten member states of ASEAN have ratified, is a good starting point and is growing in effectiveness. However for greater efficiency in curbing the illicit wildlife trade, individual nations should increase monitoring of wildlife related activity within their borders. Furthermore nations should increase co-operation in curbing the illicit wildlife trade. The stakes are far too high to not proceed in a cautious and responsible manner. LIST OF ACRONYMS ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nation CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CoP13 The Thirteenth Conference of the Parties (CITES) GMS Greater Mekong Sub-Region FAO Food and Agriculture Organization IUCN The World Conservation Union UNDP United Nations Development Program WCS Wildlife Conservation Society WWF World Wildlife Fund Bibliography Felbab-Brown (June,2011) Foreign Policy. London: Brookings. Drury.R( 2009) University of Westminster, London’CITES. (n.d.). Engelsberg. P (2007),TRAFFIC http://www.cites.org. Retrieved December 7, 2011 http://chm.asean.com Gray, D. (2004, April 6). Retrieved November 7, 2011, from http://msnbc.msn.com: Kakati,K, Interview (December,2011) Martin, E.B and M.Phipps, A Review of the Wild Animal Trade in Cambodia. TRAFFIC Bulletin 16(2): pgs 45-60, 1996 Menon.J, Interview, WWF (Decber,2011) Nash, S. Fin, Feather, Scale and Skin: Observations on the Wildlife Trade in Vietnam and Lao PDR, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia. TRAFFIC Southeast Asia report, 1997 Nijaman, V. (2009). TRAFFIC Southeast Asia Report. Nooren and Claridge, TRAFFIC,2001 Nooren and Claridge, TRAFFIC,2003 R Newer, R. E. (2011). Eluciadata. Seidensticker, J. Riding the tiger: tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Shepherd, C. R. Export of live freshwater turtles and tortoises from Northern Sumatra and Riau, Indonesia. A case study. pp. 112-199. IN: Asian Turtle Trade: Proceedings of a Workshop on Conservation and Trade of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises in Asia. Van Dijk, P.P., B. Stuart, and A.G.J. Rhodin eds. Chelonian Research Monographs.Number 2, 2000 Shepherd and Magnus, TRAFFIC, 2004 Shepherd (September,2004), TRAFFICSingh, V. (2009). Curbing Wildlife Trade. Hindustan Times . Singh, V. (2004). Social Implications of the Wildlife Trade. Sullivan.S (June,2003), WWF Report TRAFFIC. (2008). http://www.traffic.org. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.traffic.org/general-reports/traffic_pub_gen24.pdf TRAFFIC. (2004). TRAFFIC and WCS Annual Report. London. World Conservation Society. (2003). Lao Program. Stuart.J, (2000) ,TRAFFIC Report